Chapter 2

RESTRAINT AND EXUBERANCE IN JAPANESE ART

Contrasts

The difference between aesthetic restraint and aesthetic exuberance can best be explained by comparing examples of pottery, sculpture, architecture, painting and prints, drama, and gardens. For the time being, the discussion will not include the issue of spontaneity, which will be dealt with in the following two chapters.

Pottery

The Jōmon Period (10,000-300BCE) was a time when ancient hunting and gathering traditions were gradually replaced by slash and burn agriculture and more sedentary life styles. It was during this period that pottery was invented –perhaps the earliest in the world. The Jōmon people used clay coils to construct pots of various sizes and shapes for cooking, storage, and ceremonial purposes. Many of the finished pots were decorated by rolling twisted rope across the surface when the clay was still damp, giving rise to the name, Jōmon, which means cord-marked. While most Jōmon pots were plain, utilitarian vessels, some (particularly those from the middle Jōmon Period) are characterized by a baroque exuberance and spontaneity unrivaled anywhere in the world. It is not known what such elaborate pottery may have been used for, but it certainly was not practical for domestic use.

The Yayoi Period (300BCE-300CE) marked a time of significant change in Japan. Major new cultural influences from the continent brought wet rice agriculture on a large scale. The Yayoi people were organized into clans, with the clan leader serving as both clan chief and head priest of a religion that came to be known as Shinto. The Yayoi Period and the following Tomb Mound Period are the sources of much of what is regarded as "typical" Japanese culture today. A major innovation introduced during the Yayoi Period was the use of the potter’s wheel. As a consequence of being made on a wheel, Yayoi pottery is simple in form. It also is

restrained in surface decoration and color. Although some of the very large Yayoi vessels were used for burials, most Yayoi pots were employed for domestic purposes such as cooking and storage.

Left: Reconstructed Jomon pit house.

Right: Reconstructed structure, elevated on posts sunk into the ground, from the Yayoi Period.

The baroque exuberance of Middle Jomon pottery (left) contrasts with the simplicity of pottery made on the wheel in the following Yayoi period (right).

In the following Tomb Mound (Kofun) Period, after two or three dynastic changes, the ancestors of the present ruling family assumed control of the Yamato state in the early sixth century. The center of their power was in the Yamato basin around Nara. Some of the most interesting examples of pottery from the Tomb Mound Period are the haniwa (meaning "circle of clay") figures that were planted close together on the slopes of the large burial mounds of the ruling elite.

While many haniwa were simple cylinders, others assumed a great variety of shapes on a round base, such as human figures, animals, and houses. These figures provide insight into daily activities of the period that would not otherwise be known. Lee (1964:74) points out that these Japanese clay figures are completely different from their Chinese counterparts, the Han tomb figures. Whereas the Chinese attempted to achieve realism, the Japanese allowed the material to dominate the concept, resulting in highly plastic, stylized forms, unsurpassed for their simple beauty.During the latter part of the Tomb Mound Period, the knowledge of making high-fired stoneware known as sue ware entered Japan from Korea. In the Nara Period, glazing techniques for high-fired pottery were introduced from the continent and spread from kilns around the city of Nara to other areas such as Seto.

Layout of a large tomb mound from the Tomb Mound (Kofun) Period. The terraces surrounding a hill in the enter were covered with rows of haniwa figures, such as the one depicted on the right.

After Japan invaded Korea in the 16th century, Korean potters were brought to Japan to teach the Japanese how to make porcelain. Porcelain production required the use of suitable clays and step-chambered kilns. A major center of porcelain production was Arita in Kyushu. Inspired by Chinese Ming pottery, Arita ware involved the application of polychrome enamels and underglaze cobalt to a milk-white porcelain body. Because of its technical brilliance, intricate designs, and bright colors, Arita ware was popular in Europe. More restrained pieces were used by local daimyō (warlords who headed local clans) and samurai families. The history of Arita pottery is well documented in a fine museum in the town of Arita.

Meanwhile, unglazed stoneware continued to be made at traditional kilns such as Tokoname, Iga, and Bizen. In the Muromachi and Momoyama periods, unglazed stoneware from kilns such as these was highly favored by the tea masters for their shibui qualities. The subtle but beautiful colors of Bizen pottery come from minerals in the clay itself, enhanced by a long, slow firing and the use of straw and salt to produce natural patterns. The Bizen tradition continues today. In the hands of master potters such as Kaneshige Tōyō, Fujiwara Kei, and Fujiwara Yū, Bizen pottery attained a level of sophistication unparalleled in Japanese history. There are many other potters who are not in the Bizen tradition but who use similar techniques to create pottery that is equally shibui.

Top: Stepped wood-burning kiln.

Left bottom: Pot decorating a bridge in the Kyushu town of Arita.

Left right: Old Bizen pot being used to hold water.

Sculpture

Warner (1958) has pointed out that Shinto was the preserver and nurse of traditional crafts, but seldom a patron of the arts. In other words, crafts associated with guilds, such as carpentry, were practiced in accordance with Shinto rituals, but very few paintings and sculptures were commissioned for Shinto shrines. The few sculptures that are Shinto in origin tend to be very simple in form. Most of the early sculpture in Japan was associated with Buddhism. Following the introduction of Buddhism in the sixth century CE, early Buddhist sculpture in Japan was either imported from China and Korea or inspired by these countries, where Buddhism had already achieved a high level of aesthetic development and cultural influence. The form of Buddhism that entered Japan from the continent was Mahayana, which stressed universal enlightenment. Under the patronage of political figures, such as Prince Shōtoku, Buddhism was used to help solidify the control of the imperial line and weld the different geographical areas of Japan into a state. From the late sixth to the eighth centuries, numerous temples were built in the Kyoto, Osaka, and Nara areas. These temples were filled with a great variety of Buddhist art, including sculptural depictions of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas, and guardian deities. Though a great deal of this early art was destroyed over the centuries, mostly by temple fires, many good examples remain in the worship halls, subsidiary buildings, and treasure houses of temples such as Hōryūji, Kōfukuji, and Yakushiji, in or near Nara.

The contrast between the exuberant and restrained traditions in early Buddhist sculpture is illustrated by meditating Buddhas on one hand and divine generals, whose job is to provide protection. This meditating Buddha, at Asukadera Temple, is the oldest surviving statue of Shakamuni (the historical Buddha) in Japan. The divine general is situated in an entrance gate at Nikko.

Architecture

After the coming of Buddhism, Shinto architecture succumbed almost completely to Chinese influence. Shinto gods were eventually identified with the Buddhist pantheon in a synthesis called Ryōbu Shinto (Double Shinto). Shrines became associated with Buddhist temples, often to protect them, and sometimes both were served by the same priest. Some shrines adopted the curved Chinese roofs and the woodwork was painted red, a practice that reached maturity in the Heian Period. As early as 886 the traditional torii (Shinto gate) began to be replaced by two-storied gateways normally found in Buddhist temples. The fences enclosing the main sanctuary were replaced by corridors. A good example of shrine architecture in the Chinese style is the well-known Heian Shrine in Kyoto. Dedicated to the emperors Kammu and Kōmei, Heian Shrine is a ninteenth century, two-thirds scale reconstruction of the Daigokuden, Great Hall of State of the Heian-period Imperial Palace originally located near the site of Nijō Castle in Kyoto. The gorgeous and extravagant style of the Daigokuden was due to its use for important occasions such as coronations and receptions of important visitors from abroad. In sharp contrast to Heian Shrine are the Grand Shrines at Ise (known collectively as Ise Jingū), which were first constructed during the final years of the Yayoi Period as a repository for the sacred mirror of the imperial family. Beginning in the 7th century, the shrines have been rebuilt every 20 years, on a fairly regular basis, thereby ensuring a more or less faithful transmission of the original style. Ise Jingū is separated from the world by an ancient cryptomeria forest in which some of the huge trees are over a thousand years old. As one walks through this natural setting, the beauty of nature prepares one for the encounter with the shrines. The shrines are simple wooden buildings with thatched roofs, but despite their simplicity, they have a profound sophistication --the type of sophistication that can only be achieved by restraint and understatement.

Left: A subsidiar shrine at Ise Jingu, with its natural, unpainted wood.

Right: A brightly-painted building at Heian Shrine in Kyoto.

The main sanctuary at Naikū, the Inner Shrine, is a rectangular structure made of log planks left in their natural golden color. It is dominated by a large roof, elevated on posts, and thatched with miscanthus. The roof ridge is supported by two free-standing pillars sunk directly into the earth. The entrance is in the middle of the long side (a style called hirairi) with a staircase leading from the ground to the entrance. There are no curved lines anywhere in the building. To avoid a feeling of heaviness due to the massive roof, the thatch narrows as it rises, as do the pillars that support the ridgepole. At each end of the roof, the roof poles cross the ridge and extend beyond to form the chigi (forked finials) that also help balance the massive slope of the roof. Laid across the ridgepole is a row of long, close-set pegs, the katsuogi, which are square with rounded ends.According to Bruno Taut, a German architect who was one of the first to recognize the aesthetic genius of Ise, the success of Ise Jingū is due to its clarity of construction, simplicity of material, and beauty of proportion. In summary, at Ise we find the basic principles of architecture that are now considered to be typically Japanese: the subtle but direct use of unpainted and undecorated wood and thatch, raising the structure on wooden piles, and a sympathetic adaptation of the architecture to the natural environment. The contrast between Heian Shrine and Ise Jingū, both beautiful in their own ways, could hardly be more pronounced.

Chigi (forked finials) and katsuogi (parallel pegs) on the roof of a subsidiary shrine building at Ise Jingu.

Early Buddhist temples in the Asuka and Nara periods, copying continental styles, were generally organized into a symmetrical pattern and constructed on level ground, devoid of trees. Good examples are Hōryūji, Tōdaiji, and Yakushiji temples, in the area now occupied by the city of Nara. Chinese styles persisted into later periods, as exemplified by the elaborate Heian Period Phoenix Hall of Byōdōin at Uji, constructed by Yorimichi, regent to the emperor. Byōdōin is characterized by a symmetrical layout, ornate decorations, curved roofs, and red and white colors. Examples of the Chinese emphasis upon monumentality are provided by the Nishi (West) and Higashi (East) Honganji temples in Kyoto (Momoyama Period) with their enormous buildings situated in walled and graveled courtyards. The magnificence of Byōdōin and the Honganji temples is due to the fact that they attempted to capture the beauty of paradise (the Pure Land) as described in paintings and scriptures associated with Amida Buddhism. Whereas Shinto architecture, with the exception of a few shrines such as Ise Jingū, became more Chinese over time, Buddhist temple compounds frequently became more assymetrical as they were adapted to natural settings more in line with Japanese standards of taste. A good example is the small Tendai temple of Sanzenin in Ōhara, a mountain village near Kyoto. The Amida hall was established in 594 (Asuka Period) and rebuilt in 1148 (Late Heian Period). Although Sanzenin is not particularly noteworthy for its architecture, it is set in a forest of cryptomeria trees and the grounds are covered with moss. The buildings themselves are small with bark-covered roofs. Rather than imposing order on their surroundings, as in the classical Chinese style, Sanzenin blends perfectly into its surroundings.

Sanzenin (left) with its natural wood and setting, is a good example of how early Chinese-style Buddhist temples evolved over time in the direction of a more natural Japanese taste, while many Shinto shrines, which were originally natural like the ones at Ise, took on Chinese characteristics, such as the painted wood at Kasuga Shrine in Nara, shown above.

A striking example of the contrast between the restrained and exuberant traditions from the Muromachi Period are Kinkakuji and Ginkakuji temples in Kyoto. The top two floors of Kinkakuji (Temple of the Golden Pavilion) are covered with gold leaf. In contrast, the wood siding of Ginkakuji (Temple of the Silver Pavilion) was left in a natural state to weather. Both temples are quite beautiful but very different in the way they interact with their garden environments.

Left: Ginkakui (Temple of the Silver Pavilion) in Kyoto.

Right: Kinkakuji (Temple of the Golden Pavilion) in Kyoto.

Painting and Prints

The introduction of Shingon and Tendai Budhism in the early Heian Period stimulated the use of pictures to explain their esoteric doctrines. Frequently depicting Buddhist deities or mandala (magical diagrams), Buddhist iconography from this period, with its use of bold designs and colors, was in the exuberant tradition.

The Heian Period also saw the rise of another exuberant style known as Yamato-e (Japanese painting as opposed to Kara-e, Chinese painting). Scenes of Japanese or historical personages, landscapes, or courtiers enjoying leisure time activities were painted on the screens and sliding doors of mansions belonging to aristocrats. Yamato style paintings were also used to decorate the walls and doors of Buddhist temples.

In the late Heian Period, Yamato style painting was employed to depict narratives on horizontal hand scrolls known as emaki. Perhaps the most famous example of this genre is the Genji Monogatari emaki (a scroll depicting 20 scenes from one of the world’s first full-length novels, Genji Monogatari by Lady Murasaki) that describes the amorous adventures of the court noble, Prince Genji. Yamato-e painting is best described as "decorative" with its use of large areas of color, bold contrasts, and abstract shapes. The colors in some Yamato-e paintings were subtle, but often gold and silver foil were used lavishly. In the following Kamakura and Muromachi periods, Yamato-e became more realistic and more detailed, without losing its emphasis upon bold designs and large areas of color. In the Momoyama Period, Yamato-e paintings were employed to brighten the dark interiors of the magnificent castles of the military rulers. Walls and screens were painted with bold mineral and earth colors, such as malachite green and azurite blue, against backgrounds of pure gold. Many of these paintings were monumental in size. One of the most famous painters of this period was Kanō Eitoku (1543-1590), who decorated Oda Nobunaga’s Azuchi Castle on the shores of Lake Biwa, as well as Toyotomi Hideyoshi’s castle at Osaka, Another well-known painter from this period was Hasegawa Tōhaku (1539-1610) who worked in both the suiboku (black ink) and colorful Yamato-e styles. In the Edo Period, the Yamato-e and Momoyama traditions were carried on, in a more subdued form, by Tawaraya Sōtatsu (1576-1643), Ogata Kōrin (1658-1716) and Sakai Hōitsu (1779-1828).

The exuberant, decorative tradition found expression not only in aristocratic art, but in the art of the common people as well. Ukiyo-e ("pictures of the floating world"), depicted in Edo Period paintings and woodblock prints, expressed the growing influence of the moneyed merchant class. Favorite subjects were the beautiful women of the pleasure quarters and kabuki actors. The floating world provided an escape from the restrictions of Edo society, with its emphasis upon Confucian propriety and elaborate rules governing the conduct of the various social classes. The earliest woodblock prints were done in black and white, but under Suzuki Harunobu (1725-1770), the use of a variety of colors came into its own and set the standard for later generations of woodblock print artists. Continuing the Yamato-e tradition, woodblock prints are characterized by bold designs and large areas of solid colors. This tendency was perhaps encouraged by the need to carve a separate wood block for each color used. To summarize, the colorful, exuberant tradition originally was developed to facilitate the didactic activities of Buddhist monasteries and later, to decorate military castles. In the Edo Period, the exuberant tradition became typical of the art of the common people.

In striking contrast to the exuberant tradition in Japanese painting is the Chinese Sung style of suiboku-ga or sumi-e, black ink painting. Suiboku-ga was introduced to Japan in the Kamakura Period and culminated in the Muromachi Period. Most of the early black ink painters were Zen monks rather than professional artists. Popular subjects were landscapes, Buddhist hermits and Zen masters. Suiboku-ga are painted with the Chinese fountain brush (fude), made of several kinds of animal hair (such as rabbit, goat, raccoon, deer, and horse) and designed to hold enough ink to complete one or more strokes. An ink stick (composed of lamp soot, glue, and incense) is ground with water on an ink stone to make black ink. In addition to the compartment containing the black ink, there is usually another compartment containing more diluted ink in shade of gray. One way of painting is to dip the brush first in the diluted ink and then to dip the tip in the darker ink. Loaded in this way with two different concentrations of ink, the artist can create a line with different shades of "color." There are numerous techniques and brushes that can be employed to create both wet and dry strokes, thin and thick strokes, and sharp and "spattered" areas.

Basic to these techniques, however, is the use of a calligraphic-style stroke. Suiboku-ga painters frequently train by practicing calligraphy in conjunction with zazen (Zen meditation). Spiritual strength is demonstrated by the production of lines that are firm and decisive. Hesitation of even a fraction of a second shows on the rice paper that, like a blotter, absorbs ink quickly. Subjects are depicted with considerable speed and economy of strokes in an attempt to show the essence of what is being painted, rather than filling in spaces, as in Western-style oil painting. If it is considered desirable to color a large area, a diluted "wash" may be applied with a large brush; calligraphic strokes can then be executed over the wash.

Top left: Yamato style painted sceens at Ninnaji Temple in Kyoto.

Top right: Zen style black ink screens at Ryoanji Temple in Kyoto.

Bottom: Woodblock print from the Edo Period.

Drama

The three main types of classical theater in Japan are bunraku (puppet theater), kabuki, and Noh. Kabuki, which began in the early 17th century as a traveling variety show and reached maturity by the end of the century, is a masterful blend of acting, dance, and music. Originally, kabuki entertainers were women, but because they were often prostitutes, the Edo government eventually decreed that only men could perform. Thereafter, women’s roles were played by female impersonators (onna-gata). The word "kabuki" has connotations of "out of the ordinary" or "shocking." Originally, this was due to its sensual dances and erotic themes, but these connotations are still appropriate today because of the melodramatic character of kabuki. Stage sets are elaborate, casts are frequently large, and kabuki actors are famous for their dramatically painted faces and exaggerated poses. When a Kabuki actor strikes and holds a pose in just the right way, those who know how it should be done, because they have seen the same play so many times in the past, yell out the lineage name of the actor. In contrast to Kabuki theatre, which appeals to all classes of people because of its entertainment value, Noh theatre, in the restrained tradition, is more aristocratic and religious in nature. In Noh, acting is combined with an orchestra and chorus. The chorus alternates with the actors in telling the story, while the orchestra sets the tempo with its strangely haunting music. The story often involves a Buddhist priest who serves as an intermediary between the human world and the world of spirits, gods, and ghosts. The stage is nearly devoid of props, the main actor normally wears a mask, and movements are slow and measured. The goal is to provide an experience of beauty that can be profoundly moving because of its simplicity and the heightening of emotions through understatement. For example, to express deep grief, the actor lifts his hand softly before his eyes; and to express joy, he lifts his masked face. Concealing the face and allowing the audience to imagine the suggested emotion serve to amplify the effect.

Left: Wooden Noh mask used by a leading actor in a noh play.

Right: Brightly painted face of a kabuki actor.

Gardens

The earliest gardens in Japan were simple graveled plots in the forest or along the shore --places for the gods (kami) to land. In contrast to these simple beginnings, new garden forms that came from the Continent in the 6th century CE were elaborate compositions containing a pond, islands, vegetation, and rock arrangements. When Zen Buddhism was introduced from China in the 12th century, its emphasis upon meditation gardens consisting primarily of rocks, gravel, and moss reinforced earlier indigenous forms.The contrast between small simple gardens and large complex compositions was most pronounced in the Edo Period, which saw the development of stroll gardens developed for military rulers. At the same time, however, small courtyard gardens (tsubo niwa) were being tucked away in the small corners of temples and on the grounds of business dwellings known as machiya.In the modern period, the large stroll-style gardens developed into parks, whereas small gardens were incorporated into private residences, one of the hallmarks of a gracious Japanese home.

The effect of this karesansui (waterless landscape) garden composed of gravel, rocks, and moss at Ryogenin Temple (a sub-temple of Daitokuji Zen Monastery in Kyoto) is quite different from that of Suizenji Jojuen's large stroll garden organized around a pond in Kumamoto.

Explanations

What is the explanation for these pronounced contrasts in Japanese art and architecture? There are at least three possible factors.

Cultural Origins

One explanation is that there are differences in cultural origins. The restrained tradition has its origins in Yayoi culture with its emphasis upon simplicity and fitting into nature, whereas the exuberant tradition is partly the child of Chinese influences during the Nara Period. Colorful dadaiko drums, used in gagaku, the ancient court music of China and Korea, are still preserved in Japan. Likewise, colorful pottery traditions, such as Arita, were stimulated by influences from China, in contrast to the restraint of the old kilns of Japan such as Bizen. The stereotype of the Chinese as a people who prefer bright colors is reinforced by current examples of Chinese taste in Japan, as exemplified by the Kōshi-byō Confucian Temple in Nagasaki, Kyshu. When Japanese temples from the Nara Period are rebuilt or restored, they are done in the original Chinese style with the woodwork painted vermilion. Having paid tribute to authenticity, however, the wood is allowed to age naturally, without being repainted. Over time, the painted wood takes on a much more restrained feeling that comes with the patina of age. These differences in cultural origins, however, should not be over-emphasized. The exuberance of Jōmon pottery is probably an indigenous development and, somewhat paradoxically, the indigenous Yamato-e tradition was more colorful than the black-ink style of painting introduced from China by Zen Buddhism.

Left: Colorful dadaiko drums housed in the National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka.

Right: Chinese Confucian temple in Nagasaki.

Technology

Much of the simplicity of Yayoi pottery is due to the fact that it is made on a wheel. In contrast, Jōmon pottery is made with coils, a technique that allows great elaboration of form. Likewise, Arita pottery was possible only because the porcelain base allowed a pot to be treated like a canvas upon which beautiful colors and precise designs could be painted. In contrast, the rough surfaces of unglazed stoneware typical of the traditional Japanese kilns were totally unsuited to "painterly" treatment. One of the most striking aspects of Chinese-style temples is the large, tile-covered roof which dominates the rest of the structure. Massive roofs were made possible by sophisticated technological inventions such as complicated bracketing systems that allowed considerable overhang. In contrast, Ise Jingū, despite its aesthetic sophistication, is rather primitive technologically. Finally, as has been mentioned above, the bold designs and large areas of color typical of Japanese woodblock prints can be attributed, at least in part, to the necessity of carving a separate block for each color. This is an example of a technological innovation that made mass production possible while reducing the intricacies of design that can be achieved with small brushes.

Left: The extensive bracketing system used in Buddhist temples permit the construction of massive tiled roofs.

Right: The roof system used at Ise Jingu is relatively simple in comparison.

Function

The above arguments concerning cultural origins and technology have merit. Equally important, however, is the argument that the main difference between the restrained and exuberant traditions lies in the area of function. For example, Yayoi pots were simple because they were intended for cooking and storage. The function of the more elaborate examples of Jōmon pottery is unclear, but they were probably created for ceremonial purposes. The distinction between domestic and ceremonial functions is much clearer in the case of architecture. The great Buddhist temples of the Asuka and Nara periods were designed to impress surrounding clans, as well as visiting dignitaries from abroad, with the power of the ruling Yamato clan and its determination to exert and maintain control. The same can be said of the magnificence of the Hall of State in the Kyoto imperial palace. In contrast, the private living quarters of the emperor were extremely simple and restrained.

Other functional differences have already been suggested. For example, simplicity of style can connote tranquillity in a meditating Buddha or Bodhisattva, whereas the function of a protector deity is to be fierce and formidable. Likewise, the primary function of some of the large Momo-yama colored screens was to decorate the castles of warlords, whereas the purpose of Zen paintings was to express religious insight, as well as to suggest that enlightenment lies in the direction of austerity and moderation rather than in ostentatious display.

The most important functional consideration is the distinction between domestic and non-domestic functions. The Japanese terms, uchi and soto are helpful in this respect. Literally, uchi means inside, but the concept is extended to include one’s home, domestic affairs, one’s family, and other small primary groups with which one has intimate relations. Literally, soto means outside-- everything that is not "family." Because uchi is associated with domestic life, designs and colors tend to be quiet, and restful. Home is where one retreats from the stress of the public domain to regain a sense of tranquillity and composure. At home, one does not have to perform, and it is not necessary to impress others. Another set of terms that is useful in this context is ke and hare. Ke refers to that which is ordinary and mundane, whereas hare refers to that which is extraordinary. These two sets of terms will be elaborated upon in the chapter dealing with the aesthetics of everyday life.

In general, art and architecture designed for residential purposes in Japan are characterized by restraint, whereas art and architecture designed to impress the public tend to be exuberant: large, ornate, and colorful. Both traditions co-existed in the Heian Period Imperial Palace of Kyoto. Just inside the south gate of the palace was the Chōdōin, used for the accession ceremony and other court functions, and the Burakuin where imperial entertainment, such as banquets, was held. The main hall of the Chōdōin was the Daigokuden, in the center of which stood the imperial throne. The Daigokuden was a typical Chinese building with green emerald tiles and finials on the roof. It was monumental in size and rested on a stone platform. The woodwork was painted red, and the roof was green tile. Part of this building has been reproduced in the Heian Shrine of Kyoto, discussed above.

The imperial residential compound, called the Kōkyo, was in back of the Chōdōin, and occupied a fairly small area. The buildings in the Kōkyo were in pure Japanese style. The transition from the Chinese style Chōdōin to the Japanese style Kōkyo was marked by Kōkyo’s two gateways. The outer gate was two-storied with red pillars and a tiled roof. The inner gate was single-storied and covered with cypress shingles (Paine and Soper 1960: 201-202). This is a fitting symbol of the compromise the Japanese made with Chinese culture. Just as their ancestors had kept Buddhist priests off the grounds of Ise, the Kyoto emperors were determined not to allow Chinese influence into their private chambers. Nevertheless, the color and grandeur of Chinese architecture was well suited to impress visitors. Thus the coexistence of the restrained and exuberant styles in one palace is not really a mystery.

Left: The simple, tasteful interior of a traditional residence is designed to impart a sense of tranquillity.

Right: The magnificent Daigokuden (Hall of State) of the imperial palce in Kyoto was designed to impress visiting dignitaries. The Daigokuden has been reproduced at Heian Shrine, shown above.

Other Examples of Coexistence

Other interesting examples of coexistence can be found in the Momoyama Period, when the country was being unified militarily, and in the following Edo Period, when the Tokugawa shoguns governed the country until the Meiji Restoration of 1868. The secular architecture of both the Momoyama and Edo periods developed in two directions. The castle and palace architecture reflected the power of the rulers; but alongside this new development, the restrained style continued in tearooms and residences. Toyotomi Hideyoshi, perhaps the greatest of the Momoyama military leaders, was preceded by Oda Nobunaga and followed by Tokugawa Ieyasu, the first of the Tokugawa shoguns. Hide-yoshi came from a peasant background. Always conscious of his plebian birth, he was determined to outshine his generals, who were from old, established families. He tried to capture some of the grandeur of the Nara Period (rooted in the civilization of Tang China) by building the largest wooden building ever constructed in Japan Hōkōji Temple. It was 200 feet high and housed a Buddha 150 feet high (Sadler 1963). Other examples of his extravagance were the huge Osaka castle and the Fushimi-Momoyama palace that was dismembered by the Tokugawa. The Fushimi palace (called the Peach Hill Castle, from which the Momoyama Period derives its name) was monumental in size and decorated in gorgeous colors and gold. Hideyoshi even built a portable tearoom in which the walls and pillars, as well as the equipment, such as the tea kettle, were covered with gold leaf . At the same time, however, Hideyoshi was the patron of the famous tea master, Sen no Rikyū, who perfected the tea ceremony and made his tea rooms as small and austere as possible. It is said that as Osaka Castle grew larger, Rikyū’s tearooms grew smaller and more austere ultimately reduced to only one and a half tatami mats in size. Despite the implied criticism of this action, Hideyoshi admired Rikyū’s taste. Eventually, however, Hideyoshi became suspicious that Rikykū was trying to poison him and ordered Rikykū to commit suicide.

The monumental size and durable structure of Osaka Castle is in strong contrast to the feeling of impermanence imparted by a teahouse.

Another example of what Munsterberg (1962: 160) calls the "dual nature of the Japanese soul" is the Ōhiroma (big room) in Nijō Castle in Kyoto, constructed for the Tokugawa shogun, Ieasu, in 1602 and later remodeled. The Ōhiroma is where Ieasu met with local daimyo when he visited Kyoto from Edo. Although the tatami mats lend an air of simplicity, one cannot help but be impressed by the gold foil, colorful screens and brightly decorated ceilings. Near the Ōhiroma is the Shiroshoin (White Study), the private quarters for the shogun. Although elegant, the shiroshoin is smaller and much more modestly decorated.A similar contrast can be seen at Nishi Honganji Temple, headquarters of the Jōdo Shinshū (True Pure Land denomination) temple, located in Kyoto. In this case, the Shiroshoin was where the powerful head of the temple met with important people. Constructed around 1632, the building has a comparatively simple exterior, but the interior is profusely decorated with paintings by Kanō Eitoku, as well as with gold and black lacquer. Adjoining the Shiroshoin of the Nishi Honganji is the Kuroshoin, used for private purposes. Here can be seen the simplicity and taste characteristic of shibusa. This dual allegiance to both the restrained and exuberant traditions is expressed literally in some of the Momoyama screens, which have a colored painting on one side and a black ink painting on the other. Its most beautiful expression is probably the Noh drama in which the paucity of stage props and slowness of movement are complemented and emphasized by the gorgeous costumes of the actors.

A Continuum

These examples of simultaneous restraint and exuberance illustrate an important point. Restraint and exuberance should not be viewed as contradictions, but as two ends of a continuum. In between the ends are infinite gradations. Somewhere toward the middle are numerous examples of what might be called elegance. Good examples of a type of elegance that is neither restrained nor gaudy are provided by some of the more subtle Genji scrolls, painted in the Yamato-e tradition. In discussing a scene from an early Genji scroll, the editors of Art Treasures of Japan make this comment concerning the quality of colors used in the 12th century Yamato-e. "The color scheme of the whole picture suggests that the moonlight fills garden and palace. Both the composition and colors are well balanced and very quiet. This is the Yamato-e style of painting at its very best, carried out in a harmony of the most delicate colors" (Yashiro 1960: 213).

Another example from the Heian Period was the use of several kimono layers to achieve elegant color effects (kasane-no-irome). For example, a red kimono might be covered with a thin white kimono to achieve the color of a pale pink cherry blossom. A formal costume of Heian court ladies was called jūni-hitoe, a twelve-layered apparel, each layer consisting of a different shade of the same color. The layers were donned in order of increasingly darker shades and worn in such a way that the different layers could be seen at the neck and sleeve openings. It was in the Kōetsu-Sōtatsu-Kōrin school, however, that the elegant tradition in Japanese art reached the height of refinement and power. Sometimes the viewer is lured by the lovely colors and abstract designs into a world of pure music. If one word were used to describe this type of elegance, it would be lyrical, as evidenced in screens by Sakai Hōitsu. Many of the traditional arts and crafts of Japan fall somewhere on the continuum between restraint and exuberance.

Somewhere in the middle of the continuum between restraint and exuberance are numerous examples of what might be called elegance in the Japanese arts and crafts. Shown here is a detail from a Genji scrool and portions of a carved door and post at Higashi Honganji Temple in Kyoto.

Role of the Imperial Family

The aesthetic values associated with the concept of shibusa were cultivated primarily by the imperial family. Shibusa found its first mature expression in the imperial shrines at Ise. Though neglected by the Fujiwara nobles in the Heian Period, shibusa was maintained in all its simplicity in the imperial residences at the main palace (Gosho) in Kyoto. In contrast to the extravagance of Hideyoshi's stateroom at the Momoyama palace, the stateroom of the imperial palace is extremely simple, with the thrones for the emperor and consort consisting of two straight-backed chairs. The summer throne was even simpler in that the emperor sat on a circular tatami mat. When the present imperial palace was built in Tokyo, much of the simplicity and elegance of the Kyoto palace was maintained. The austere taste associated with shibusa is evident not only at Ise and Gosho, but at other structures built for members of the imperial family, such as the Katsura Detached Palace (Katsura Rikyu) in Kyoto.

Regardless of how this type of taste first came to be espoused by the imperial line, once it reached maturity at Ise, it assumed a sacred character. Ise was the symbol of the power of the emperor. The emperor's authority came from his kinship to the gods, so he/she had an interest in ensuring that this symbol was not destroyed by Chinese influences. It was for this reason that the austere Ise style remained relatively pure while many other Shinto shrines came to look more and more like Buddhist temples. There are additional reasons why this type of aesthetic taste was maintained by the imperial family. The imperial family has always been conservative. It has been more or less isolated from outside influences and thus family traditions have changed more slowly. Also, it is the world's longest-lived dynasty. The present emperor is a descendant of the early clan that unified and ruled Yamato in prehistoric times. This is a great source of pride to many Japanese, who do not wish to see imperial traditions changed any more than does the imperial family. Finally, it should be noted that during much of Japanese history, particularly the end of the 12th century to the middle of the 16th, the imperial family was too poor for an extravagant life style. They had little choice to live a life of austerity. As a result, they were not tempted, as were the military shoguns, to abandon the aesthetic values associated with restraint and to embrace those associated with exuberance.

Conclusion

The Japanese have a love of both restraint and exuberance, both of which have thrived through a long history. The Yayoi preference for simplicity was later reinforced by the teaching of Zen Buddhism that gorgeous things last only temporarily and should be abandoned in favor of an austere life of unattachment. It was also expressed in the arts associated with Zen, as well as in many of the folk arts and crafts. Finally, the restrained tradition was reinforced and safeguarded by the imperial family, as described above. The exuberant, decorative tradition also has a venerable history. First appearing in Jōmon pottery, early Buddhist art and architecture, and Heian-Period Yamato-e, it was given new life in the Momoyama Period under the influence of military rulers who gloried in luxury and power. It is on the rise today in a prosperous and materialistic nation that has recently turned its back on the poverty associated with post-war Japan. Young people, in particular, have little understanding or appreciation of the restrained, austere tradition. Yet, both traditions will undoubtedly survive and continue to provide a dialectic that helps makes Japanese culture so dynamic and interesting.